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principal port, New Orleans played a major role during the antebellum era in theAtlantic slave trade. Its port handled huge quantities of commodities for export from the interior and imported goods from other countries, which were warehoused and then transferred in New Orleans to smaller vessels and distributed the length and breadth of the vastMississippi Riverwatershed. The river in front of the city was filled with steamboats, flatboats, and sailing ships. Despite its dealings with the slave trade, New Orleans at the same time had the largest and most prosperous community of free persons of color in the nation, who were often educated and middle-class property owners.[3][18]
Dwarfing in population the other cities in theantebellum South, New Orleans had, consequently, the largest slave market. Two-thirds of the more than one million slaves brought to the Deep South arrived via the forced migration of the internal slave trade. The money generated by sales of slaves in the Upper South has been estimated at fifteen percent of the value of the staple crop economy. The slaves represented half a billion dollars in property, and an ancillary economy grew up around the trade in slaves—for transportation, housing and clothing, fees, etc., estimated at 13.5 percent of the price per person. All of this amounted to tens of billions of dollars (2005 dollars, adjusted for inflation) during the antebellum period, with New Orleans as a prime beneficiary.[19]
According to historian Paul Lachance, "the addition of white immigrants to the white creole population enabled French-speakers to remain a majority of the white population until almost 1830. If a substantial proportion of free persons of color and slaves had not also spoken French, however, the Gallic community would have become a minority of the total population as early as 1820."[20]Large numbers of German and Irish immigrants began arriving at this time. The population of the city doubled in the 1830s and by 1840 New Orleans had become the wealthiest and third-most populous city in the nation.[21]
TheUnioncaptured New Orleans early in theAmerican Civil War, sparing the city the destruction suffered by many other cities of theAmerican South.[22]
In the 1850s white Francophones remained an intact and vibrant community, maintaining instruction in French in two of the city's four school districts.[23]As the Creole elite feared, however, this changed with the Civil War; in 1862 French instruction in schools was abolished by Union general Ben Butler, and teaching of the language was forbidden in schools in 1868.[23]By the end of the 19th century French usage in the city had faded significantly,[24]although as late as 1945 one still encountered elderly Creole women who spoke no English.[25]
New OrleansMardi Grasin the early 1890s.DuringReconstructionNew Orleans was within theFifth Military Districtof the United States. Louisiana was readmitted to the Union in 1868, and its Constitution of 1868 granted universal manhood suffrage. Due to the state's largeAfrican Americanpopulation, many blacks held public office. In 1872, then-lieutenant governorP.B.S. PinchbacksucceededHenry Clay Warmouthas governor ofLouisiana, becoming the first non-white governor of aU.S. state, and the last African American to lead a U.S. state untilDouglas Wilder's election in Virginia, 117 years later. In New Orleans, Reconstruction was marked by the horrible Mechanics Institute race riot (1866) but also by the successful operation of a fully racially-integratedpublic school system. Meanwhile, the city's economy struggled to right itself after practically grinding to a halt upon the declaration of war in 1861, the nationwidePanic of 1873conspiring to severely retard economic recovery.
Reconstruction ended in Louisiana in 1877, and white southernDemocrats, the so-calledRedeemers, succeeded in stripping power from theRepublican Partyandgradually circumscribing the only recently acquired civil rights of African Americans. In New Orleans, the public schools were resegregated and remained so until 1960.
New Orleans' large community of well-educated, often French-speaking free persons of color (gens de couleur libres), who had not been enslaved prior to the Civil War, sought to fight back against the incipient forces ofJim Crow. As part of their ongoing campaign, they recruited one of their own,Homer Plessy, to test whether Louisiana's newly enacted